他還說,「我所做的不過是不斷地勸說你們所有人──無論是老人還是年輕人,不要擔心你們的身體和財產,而是首先且最重要的是關心靈魂的最大提升。」(For I do nothing but go about persuading you all, old and young alike, not to take thought for your persons and your properties, but first and chiefly to care about the greatest improvement of the soul.)⁸²⁵
蘇格拉底主張通過理性的思考、自我反思來實現道德的提升,從而追求更高尚的道德境界。他說:「未經審視的人生是不值得活的。」(the life which is unexamined is not worth living.)⁸²⁶
蘇格拉底和他的學生、古希臘著名學者柏拉圖也一起提出「勇氣、節制、智慧、正義」(courage, moderation, wisdom and justice)為四主德(The Cardinal Virtues)。⁸²⁷
美國的國家先賢紀念碑(National Monument to the Forefathers)位於麻薩諸塞州,是為了紀念五月花號的清教徒而建立的。碑的主基座上矗立著象徵「信仰」的人物,她右手指向天空,左手握《聖經》。底部基座的四個扶壁分別坐著另外四個人物,象徵清教徒建立美國的基本原則,其中之一就是道德。⁸²⁸
在儒家文化中,有「己所不欲,勿施於人」的道德原則⁸²⁹。猶太教也有「如果施加給你會引起你的痛苦,也不要施加給別人,這是全部的律法,其它的都是補充性的」(What is hateful to you, do not to your neighbor: that is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary)⁸³⁰。而基督教說,「你們願意人怎樣待你們,你們也要怎樣待人」⁸³¹。
蘇格蘭著名人類學家、解剖學家亞瑟‧基思教授(Prof. Dr. Sir Arthur Keith, 1866—1955)對進化論的道德觀所作的研究的結果是:「正如我們所見,從前和現在的所謂自然進化過程都是殘酷、獸性、冷酷和沒有憐憫的。」(as we have just seen, the ways of national evolution, both in the past and in the present, are cruel, brutal, ruthless, and without mercy.)⁸³⁶
達爾文在《人類的由來》(The Descent of Man)一書中將進化論應用於人類的道德分析。 他認為人類的道德行為與動物的利他行為沒有本質區別、人類的道德良心也是進化而來的,並且不斷演化;道德的演化是羣體適應的結果。⁸³⁷
在他的自傳中,弗洛伊德回憶道,「當時流行的達爾文主義說具有強大的吸引力,因為它為理解宇宙提供了非凡的推動力。」(Darwin』s doctrine, then in vogue, was a powerful attraction, since it promised to provide an extraordinary thrust to understanding the universe.)弗洛伊德非常崇拜達爾文,並夢想成為與他平起平坐的人。
後來,隨著自然科學基因技術的發展,用基因包裝的進化論以更極端的方式被納入心理學範圍。1975年,美國哈佛大學社會生物學家愛德華‧奧斯本‧威爾遜(Edward O. Wilson, 1929—2021)在《社會生物學》(Sociobiology)一書中,依據達爾文的進化論,創立了社會生物學,用生物特徵的基因來解釋人的所有社會行為,認為人的行為與低等動物的行為沒有區別,都是被「自私的基因」所決定的,所有生命形式存在的根本原因是為了保持基因的永續。⁸⁴³
自古以來,法律一直是公平、正義的象徵,法律存在的目的就是讓人們獲得公平正義。古羅馬法典《查士丁尼法典》⁸⁵⁴(Code of Justinian)將法學定義為「法學是關於神事和人事的知識;是關於正義和非正義的科學」。⁸⁵⁵(Jurisprudence is the knowledge of things divine and human, the science of the just and the unjust.)
美國記者與作家約翰‧彼得‧科斯特(John Peter Koster, 1945—)曾寫道,「列寧辦公室裡唯一的藝術作品是個庸俗的雕像:坐在一堆包括《物種起源》(Origin of Species)的書上的一隻猿猴正在凝視著一個人類的骷髏頭骨。當他在辦公桌前工作、覈准計劃或簽署執行死刑令時,這個標誌著達爾文對人類評價的泥塑,就一直留在列寧的視線範圍之內。那猿猴和頭骨是其信仰的象徵:達爾文主義相信人『只不過』是獸,世界是個叢林,個別人的性命『根本』無關痛癢。」(The only piece of art work in Lenin』s office was a kitsch statue of an ape sitting on a heap of books—including Origin of Species—and contemplating a human skull. This rather vulgar artifact, a comment in clay on Darwin』s view of man, remained in Lenin』s view as he worked at his desk, approving plans or signing death warrants as he deemed necessary. The ape and the skull were to Lenin what a gilded icon might have been to his father. The ape and the skull were a symbol of his faith, the Darwinian faith that man is a brute, the world is a jungle, and individual lives are irrelevant.)⁸⁶⁸
科斯特在書中繼續寫道:「列寧可能不是一個本能惡毒的人,儘管他確實下令採取許多惡毒的措施。也許猿和頭骨是為了提醒他,在達爾文的世界裡,人對人的殘忍是不可避免的。在他努力通過『科學』手段實現『工人天堂』的過程中,他下令造成大量人員死亡。猿猴和頭骨可能幫助他抑制了健康童年遺留下來的任何善良或人道的衝動。(Lenin was probably not an instinctively vicious man, though he certainly ordered a great many vicious measures. Perhaps the ape and the skull were invoked to remind him that, in the world according to Darwin, man』s brutality to man is inevitable. In his struggle to bring about the 「worker』s paradise」 through 「scientific」 means, he ordered a great many deaths. The ape and the skull may have helped him stifle whatever kindly or humane impulses were left over from a wholesome childhood.)
1958年,美國心理學家勞倫斯‧柯爾伯格(Lawrence Kohlberg, 1927—1987)提出了道德發展階段(Lawrence Kohlberg』s stages of moral development)理論。該理論指出,處於道德發展高階段的人會根據普世倫理原則和良心來判斷法律或規則是否公平、是否符合正義。他們傾向於認為,只有在基於正義的前提下,法律才是有效的,所以不義的法律就不必服從。⁸⁷²
良心自由與公民不服從(Civil disobedience )一直是法治中的內容之一⁸⁷⁷。英國劍橋大學法學和公法教授特雷弗‧艾倫(Trevor R. S. Allan, 1955—)說,憑良心的異議是法治的一部分,鼓勵異議,使得每個人對正義和公平之承諾與法律義務直接相關,對法律的忠誠必須使普通民眾的道德良心參與其中⁸⁷⁸。
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828. AMERICA』S COVENANT OF LIBERTY AND THE FOREFATHER』S MONUMENT
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